Examining Foundational Instructional Design Models

     In the video “Instructional Design: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives,” Dr. Charles Reigeluth and Dr. Ana Donaldson point out how there is a lack of common language and terminology within the field of instructional design. As I explore resources related to ADDIE and Dick & Carey instructional design models, I am confronted by many conflicting terms and data. While some researchers indicate that ADDIE germinated—somewhat vaguely-- in the 1970’s in the United States armed forces (Molenda, 2003 ; Baturay, 2008), others (Cowell, Hopkins, McWhorter & Jorden, 2006) cite Educational Psychologist, Robert Gagne, as ADDIE’s “father” (p.1). Even more confounding is Molenda’s (2003) assertion that ADDIE is not really a model but rather a “colloquial label for a systematic approach to instructional development” and authors are simply imbuing the acronym with their own “narrative descriptions of each step” (p.13).

     As I perused different websites for information about ADDIE, I did observe how some sources were leaner than others. Notice how elaborate ADDIE is on Don Clark's website  (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/sat.html) versus how shallow it is on this site (http://www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html). While I am irritated by the stark contrast between these two authors/websites since I’m trying to build foundational knowledge about ADDIE, I recognize and appreciate how Don Clark is shaping ADDIE's generic form into something more substantial and useful for his professional needs.

     Don Clark is not the only instructional designer to modify ADDIE; in fact, many instructional design models stem from it. In the 1960’s, Walter Dick and Lou Carey based their nine step “Dick & Carey” model on ADDIE. (Dick and Carey expanded the model to ten steps in 2001.) Both are systems-oriented approaches to designing instruction that are applicable to any subject area and easily implemented by novices or experts (Cowell, Hopkins, McWhorter & Jorden, 2006; Baturay, 2008; Gustafson & Branch, 1997). While ADDIE is comprised of only five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation, the Dick and Carey model is much more elaborate and dissects ADDIE’s steps even further. For example, the analysis phase spans Dick & Carey’s steps 1 (instructional goals) and 3 (learner’s entry behavior and characteristics). (See all ten steps below.) Addie’s implementation phase does not really parallel any step in the Dick & Carey model, which makes me think that the instructional design team may not necessarily be delivering the training. In other words, the design team creates the course or unit but does not implement it. Gustafson & Branch (1997) corroborate my thinking since they categorize the Dick & Carey model as a systems-oriented approach, which is typically developed by a team and distributed or disseminated.        

     Some researchers have criticized both models for being too rigid or time consuming (Kruse, 2009; Cowell, Hopkins, McWhorter & Jorden, 2006), while others (Reigeluth) highlight ADDIE’s or Dick & Carey’s (Baturay, 2008) recursive capabilities throughout the design process.  The lack of an implementation phase in the Dick & Carey model would be unacceptable for a classroom teacher designing and facilitating her own plan; however, it would be appropriate for a consulting firm that designs an instructional module and distributes it to a client.

     The ADDIE model lends itself to any context, provided that a problem exists and there is a real need for training. Some argue, however, that ADDIE is biased toward instruction (Rossett). The Dick & Carey model is suitable for corporate training projects, government contexts, and military settings (Gustafson & Branch, 1997).

ADDIE:

Analyze- identify the learning problem and the gap between learners' current performance and the desired outcome; gather information about timelines, contraints (time, money; technology), delivery options, and learners (demographics, prior knowledge, unique characteristics, attitudes, educational background.)

Design- this is what Dr. Charles Reigeluth calls the "blueprint" for the instructional plan and recommends using a recursive analyze-design-analyze-design-analyze-design type cycle to identify the overall instructional strategy, learning objectives, content, scope and sequence, units or chunks of instruction with corresponding strategies; this is the point designers create the user interface as well as storyboards and prototypes.

Development-the creation all all learning materials and selection of media.

Implementation: delivering intruction to learners.

Evaluation- comprised of formative (just as we check the oil in a car we must continually do mini-checks to gauge learners' comprehension) and summative assessment instruments (the final benchmark that learners' must be able to demonstrate.) The summative assessment should be created after designing the learning objectives, and Dr. Reigeluth suggests that formative evaluations should occur at every step in the ADDIE process.

Dick & Carey:

1. Assess Needs to Identify Goals- what is the desired outcome and what is the GAP between learners' current abilities and the desired outcome.

2. Conduct Instructional Analysis-(task analysis) break down of each individual step required to perform the desired outcome.

Note: steps two and three should be done simultaneously!! 

3. Analyze Leaners and Contexts-- identify learners' characteristics and entry behaviors

4. Write MEASURABLE performance objectives- Cowell, Hopkins, McWhorter & Jorden (2006) suggest "identifying specific skills to be learned, conditions under which they must be performed, and the criteria used to measure learners' successful performance" (p.463).

5. Develop assessment instruments

6. Develop instructional strategies

7. Develop and/or select instructional materials

8. Design and Conduct  formative evaluations of instruction

9. Revise instruction-- this step was added to the model in 2001

10.Design and Conduct Summative evaluation

References:

Baturay, M. (2008). Characteristics of basic instructional design models. Ekev Academic Review, 12(34), 471-482.

Cowell, C, Hopkins, P. C., McWhorter, R., & Jorden, D. L. (2006). Alternative Training Models. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8(4), 460–475.

 Gustafson, K. L., Branch, R., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology, S. Y. (1997). Survey of Instructional Development Models. Third Edition.  Retrieved on 6 May 2012 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED411780.pdf

Kruse, K. (2009) Introduction to Instructional Design and the ADDIE model. Retrieved on 8 May 2012 from http://www.transformativedesigns.com/id_systems.html

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2012, May). ADDIE Model at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved  on 7 May 2012 from http://www.learning-theories.com/addie-model.html

Molenda, M.(2003). In search of the elusive ADDIE model. Performance improvement 42(5), 34-36.

Ryder, M. (2009) Instructional Design Models. Retrieved on 6 May 2012 from University of Colorado at Denver School of Education: http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/idmodels.html

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     As I conclude my first course in the Instructional Design program, I have been reflecting upon the course content and its application to my current and future classrooms. Some of the content presented challenged my thinking since it contradicted my current understanding of educational theory and practices; however, overall the course has deepened my understanding of multiple learning theories and their importance in instructional designs.   

     Throughout my undergraduate studies and professional career as a Middle School English/Gifted educator, I have been a staunch advocate of learning styles and fervent believer that they help people to learn. At the beginning of each new school year, I always identify students as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners and intentionally design activities that appeal to all three styles. After probing learning styles in week six of this course, I was shocked to discover the lack of research supporting them, the lack of validity of most testing instruments used to determine learning styles, and the potential for students’ learning style to fluctuate according to the content or specific learning activity. I also became more honest with myself regarding my application of students’ learning styles to instructional activities.  While it feels good to say that I know my students’ learning styles, I must admit that I do not match students with activities based on their preferred learning style. Instead, I design a variety of activities that appeal to all three modalities.

     By presenting information in different ways, I am more likely to help students digest and learn the targeted information or skills. Before taking this course, I would never have paused to define what I meant by the term “learning.”  It seemed obvious what learning is, and I assumed that everyone probably shared a common definition. However, I discovered that the term is defined differently depending upon an individual’s theoretical approach to education. Learning can be a behavioral change, a physical product, an internal mental process, a personal construction, or a social construct.  

     Each theory not only defines learning in diverse ways, but it also promotes varying active and/or passive roles for the instructor and learner, cites divergent factors that influence learning, transfer, and retention. This course has challenged me to examine Behaviorist, Cognitive, Constructivist, Social Learning, Connectivism, and Adult Learning theories through all of these dimensions, which has deepened my overall understanding of learning theory. As a learner, I have become more cognizant of my own attributes as an adult learner along with my preference for Cognitive, Social Constructivist, and Connectivist theories. In addition, I am also more aware of my strengths and weaknesses throughout the learning process. As an educational professional and future instructional designer, I have developed a strong understanding of the positive and negative aspects of each learning theory as well as how each structures the learning environment and impacts the learning process. Furthermore, I also recognize the importance of designing instruction that is well grounded in theory. A strong foundational knowledge of learning theory will help me to match the best theory to my learners and content. Without a strong theoretical base, an instructional plan could frustrate and de-motivate students as well as not maximize learning materials, instructional activities, or technologies. This was corroborated by Muniandy, Mohammad, and Soon Fook (2007) in their study of elementary teachers. Not only did the teachers lack foundational knowledge about Constructivism, but they also did not base instructional materials, activities, and technologies upon theoretical principles to maximize learning. The researchers asserted that “teachers’ planning, practice, and emphasis were more on the project itself and very little on Constructivism” (p46).

     In addition to a strong theoretical foundation, this course has also connected me with a blogging community of practicing Instructional Designers and enabled me to launch my own dialogue about theory, best practices, and emerging trends in a personal blog. Finally, the course has illuminated topics practicing Instructional Designers should know more about.  For example, I want to dig a little deeper to broaden and enrich my understanding of learning styles, ARCS, and Connectivism.  

     This course has enabled me to expand my knowledge of learning theories and enhanced my ability to weave them into sound instructional plans. I have discovered the advantages and disadvantages of each and feel better prepared to select the best theory based on the task and audience. As a learner, I have become more cognizant of my own preferences and processes during the learning process as well as acquiesced topics that I need to probe independently in order promote own professional development in instructional design.  

    

         

Revisiting Learning Theories

At the beginning of the term, I viewed myself as a Cognitive and Constructivist learner. After exploring the different learning theories and learning styles in greater depth and breadth, I would revise my view to include Cognitivism, Social Learning Theory, and Connectivism. As a learner, I am always striving to simplify, organize, and encode data in meaningful ways that connects to my background knowledge. When approaching a new concept or task, I always begin by brainstorming everything I already know about the topic or task as well as pinpointing any previous experiences that could apply to the new task. Using this background knowledge as a diving board, I can comfortably jump into the pool and swim from the known into the unknown. Cognitive strategies enable me to establish a purpose for reading, interact with text, chunk or organize facts, and encode data into memory. These strategies help not only to monitor mental
processes, but they also enable me to adjust and adapt my approach when certain strategies are not working. Although I had a solid grasp of this learning theory, I discovered many new things about Constructivist learning. After probing it more deeply, I realized that I did not construct knowledge independently on my own little oasis. Instead, I collaborated within a specific learning community (face-to-face at Immaculata and online through Walden) during learning activities to discover meaningful concepts and content. My learning was shaped by all of the divergent voices, ideas, resources, and activities within each context. As a result of this collaboration within each community, I developed knowledge about instructional design and methods of research. On the other hand, I had never heard of Connectivism before taking this class. Technology has become an essential component in my academic endeavors that empowers me to locate formal and informal data sources, save, organize, and annotate resources, collaborate with peers and practicing professionals, and publish my discoveries, explications,
and opinions. Technology is fun and exciting; I am constantly seeking out new tools that can enhance my pedagogy or professional life. With the explosion of technology tools, online communities, and data sources, I have been cultivating a rich network of social, technological, and educational connections. This network has been empowering me to organize, negotiate, collaborate, and present my learning to the world from the convenience of a personal computer in my kitchen! Creating these diverse networks happened quite naturally, without even
knowing that it illustrated an emerging learning theory--Connectivism.

When I was an undergraduate student studying English literature, professors were distributers of information and students were the consumers. It was vital not only to be well-read but also cognizant of an array of explications published by critics and academics in different schools of
literary thought. Students’ personal interpretations did not matter, since the goal was to understand the formal interpretations of literature presented by prominent scholars in the field. With the advent of the Internet and Web 2.0 tools, there has been a shift away from the formal connections (professor, academics, and researchers) distributing information to an informal network or community of learners building a body of knowledge together.

In the past, I would learn about a content area by listening to lectures, reading the textbook, and exploring the library to locate and peruse resources. After scribbling down a list of potential sources from the library card catalog, I would descend on the stacks to search for all of the
call numbers. Once I located the call number, I developed a habit of probing books on the surrounding shelves and would expand my materials dramatically. Each book yielded not only information about my topic but also a connection to other printed sources that could advance my study in depth or breadth. It was a very formal way of establishing connections within my content. With the advent of the Internet and digitalization of entire libraries, my methodology for researching has remained the same but the sources of information have changed dramatically. Although formal sources—peer reviewed journals and e-books-- are still the backbone of my research, I have expanded my scope to include informal sources, such as
blogs, wikis, RSS feeds, social tagging, and websites. It’s interesting to see how Web 2.0 tools have empowered practitioners and ordinary people to publish their own research or ideas about content areas. This privilege has been reserved only for researchers and academics in the past. Even more interesting is the online dialogue and interaction that is unfolding within these digital platforms as people are presenting, probing, and reshaping knowledge. As I explore each of these unique platforms, I am connected to similar blogs, wikis, articles or websites that expand my thinking and understanding of the content. In essence, my methodology is the same as when I would explore an entire bookshelf looking for connections except now I am scouring cyberspace for connections to help me build up an understanding of particular concepts.


Historically, I have processed and manipulated information primarily on my own or in a small class of twenty other local undergraduates. Now, technology has opened the door for me to negotiate content and concepts with diverse individuals from all over the world. When I am confused about a topic, I have the ability to explore what others have said about it on their blogs, wikis, or websites. I can even post questions on these platforms, if I can not find an acceptable answer, or potentially email qualified individuals directly. In the past, I was limited to asking classmates or the professor for help with my inquiry. As a self-directed learner, I enjoy collaborating with others about areas of interest and searching online connections to find my
own answers. It can be overwhelming, however, to sift through a relative cybersea of information and pinpoint the credible sources as well as discard the unreliable.

Connectivism Mind Map

Connectivism Concept Map:
http://www.webspirationclassroom.com/view/1132232a34179

"Can an understanding of how the brain works really improve your instructional design? Don't just assume it can, but critically consider the evidence and how it might be used in practice?"


It seems intuitive that an instructor’s knowledge of the brain and its functions would help him or her to design more effective instruction. In situations where learners have damaged areas of the brain, I believe an understanding of neurons, synaptic connections, neurotransmitters, and the four brain lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal) could inform an instructional designer’s selection and modification of methods and materials. Designers could draw from a repository of teaching strategies to compensate for vision, speech, hearing, as well as information processing deficits.

The brain and its structures will not function optimally if an individual is malnourished, dehydrated, or exhausted. From an educational standpoint, teachers in my district typically monitor students to ensure that their basic needs are met. As far as adult learners are concerned, I can not guarantee that someone in my training class is not hungry, thirsty or tired. The company can provide lunch or I can provide brief coffee/snack breaks, but I do not have much control over this issue.

I also considered how medications and illegal drugs could impair neurotransmitters’ ability to send, receive, and interpret messages; I have a file full of teaching strategies for ADHD students on Ritalin or other medications. In adult education, however, I will not have any idea if students are taking medications or illegal drugs that impede the learning process. Imagine this: an adult
learner informs me that he or she is a recreational drug user and needs differentiated instruction to compensate for his/her inability to process information effectively. Not a very likely scenario!

I also thought deeply about teaching strategies that pinpoint different areas of the brain, yet none came to mind. Even more importantly, I could not really articulate what the benefits of stimulating one area of the brain over another would be. So, I tried to locate two resources to shed light not only on the benefits of brain-based teaching but also specific strategies inherent in this approach.

After sifting through more than 20 peer-reviewed journal articles in Academic Search Premiere, I became frustrated by the lack of current research (within ten years) as well as application to adult learners. Finally, I located a 2006 journal article in New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education titled “Brain Function and Adult Learning.” The author posits that “learning is always about memory, that is, about creating lasting neural connections (p.72). In order to forge these lasting connections, Taylor emphasizes the importance of connecting new
information with learners’ prior experiences and knowledge, and suggests that the brain naturally searches for prior experiences to connect with new data. She asserts that experiential learning--personal narratives and writing-to-learn activities—utilize both hemispheres of
the brain and encourage students to negotiate their personal experiences as well as beliefs with new data to generate a new level of comprehension. Blogging is an example of writing- to-learn, because it allows students to explore new topics through writing and negotiating meaning internally—with learner’s own experiences-- and externally with other bloggers’ insightful contributions. Please peruse this website to learn more about research supporting the benefits of blogging: http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_hc07_sppaper1.pdf

Taylor also probes the difference between fact based learning (veridical) and problem based learning (non-veridical). Fact based learning occurs in the frontal cortex and challenges students to memorize data rather than manipulate it to construct new knowledge (p.78). In contrast, problem based learning occurs in the back cortex and challenges learners to analyze, compare, and interpret information.

She also suggests the important role that emotions play in long term memory. Strong emotions tend to imprint experiences well into our LTM while anxiety can impede the brain’s processing abilities and ability to recall information (p.81).

While I agree with many of Taylor’s assertions, which also resonate with chapter three of our text, I am not completely convinced that brain based learning and strategies are the magic bullet of instructional design. I would argue, however, that this area of research is informative and can contribute to a dynamic instructional plan.

References:

I placed Taylor's article in the docshare folder:
Taylor, K. (2006). Brain function and adult learning: Implications for practice. New Directions For Adult & Continuing Education, (110), 71-85.

http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_hc07_sppaper1.pdf

Reviewing Instructional Design Blogs

1. Experiencing E-Learning; http://christytucker.wordpress.com/
A. Design:
The blog is visually appealing with a main window and side bar panel. The content is well-organized, clearly labeled, and easy to navigate.

B. Content:
Main Window:
· Current thread:“Revisiting Learning Styles”

· Weekly Bookmarks: (if you click “the rest of my favorite links HERE,” it takes you to Tucker’s
public Diigo library, which is filled with a stockpile of 1,500 articles.

· Book Review:Design for How People Learn by Julie Dirksen

Side Bar:
· Biography; Portfolio data- she invests significant effort detailing her credentials,journey into Instructional Design, and current endeavors in her own ID company.

·Categories:ISD; Careers; Blogging; Tools

·Careers in ISD: skills, responsibilities, opportunities

·Recent posts and monthly archives search

· Blogroll: blogs she’s following

C. Usefulness:
Tucker’s blog offers a tremendous number of resources probing education, e-learning, learning, instructional design, research, higher education, tools, and web design. What makes it even better is the ease of navigating through each category of information. Considering the depth and
breadth of resources offered, readers really do not need to shop around to other blogs to find additional information.


2.
Multimedia Learning; http://multimedialearning.com/

A. Design:
This blog really pops with visuals, videos, and eye-catching details in the main frame. The side bar has recent posts as well as comments for readers to peruse.

B. Content:
· Tutorials: I was amazed at all of the videos demonstrating how to use multimedia tools in software such as Articulate, Captivate, Lectora, Powerpoint, and others.

·Archives Tab: This is the real gem of the blog, because it features 26 different categories, many of them different authoring software that Instructional Designers need to know. The archive also features the last 100 posts by topic.

C. Usefulness:
Although this site is not even close to offering the amount of resources as Christy Tucker features on her blog above, Multimedia learning can help fledgling Instructional Design see snappy examples of authoring software as well as learn how to built these tools into training.


3.
Julian Stodd’s Learning Blog; http://julianstodd.wordpress.com/

A. Design:
This blog is very simple in nature with the current thread in the main window and learning cloud, recent posts, blogroll, archives, Twitter Updates, and Tagcloud in the side bar. It is not as well organized as the other blogs. When the reader clicks on the “Learning” cloud, the site pulls up 116topics in the main window. Readers have to scroll down through roughly ten topics
before going to the next page. There is no way to see all 116 topics down into phrases, so readers can quickly pick and choose what they’re looking for. Similar structural flaws are evident in the Tagcloud; readers have to scroll through the hits ten per page which is time consuming.


B. Content:
oCommunication
oE-Learning
oInstructional Design
oLearning
oSocial Media
oTechnology
oWriting


C. Usefulness:
This blog is more reflective than informative when compared with the other two blogs reviewed. Stodd’s posts force readers to examine issues, practices, and tools. Unlike Tucker’s content rich resources that inform and educate readers about timely topics and issues, this blog probes into them and challenges the audience to view the topic through a different lens. For example, Stodd discusses an upcoming presentation he will deliver on formal and informal communication and stresses the value of engaging an audience in all of those channels. Stodd’s blog will certainly have readers asking more questions about themselves and their craft rather than providing
answers!

Testing Poll Gadget

Hmm...I am trying out the polling gadget, but the question does not appear above my answer choices. Any suggestions?

Practice

Just creating a practice post to see how this works!!